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Author: Jon Sullivan
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Mātauranga Māori: the way of the past and future?
During my time studying at Lincoln University I have noticed that there is a lack of Mātauranga Māori in our research and study methods. This lack of recognition for the value of Māori methods is concerning, although this could be related to the high demand for Māori academics throughout the country.
New Zealand’s culture is unique. Understanding and participating in the Māori culture is a unique experience that is not replicated anywhere else around the world. Incorporating Mātauranga Māori research methods holds the potential to be beneficial for all research projects. There needs to be a clear understanding of Mātauranga Māori and how colonisation has affected Māori connections to their land. Mātauranga Māori is a modern term for the combined knowledge of Polynesian ancestors and the experiences of Māori living in the environment of New Zealand.
Understanding how to incorporate cultural methods into research holds the potential to generate a greater understanding of unique ecosystems in New Zealand. There are many different methods and systems from Māori culture that can be used within research to help describe and understand the data being collected. Mātauranga Māori is a knowledge system that incorporates a Māori philosophical thought, world view and practice. Kaitiakitanga is described as a place-based customary responsibilities and practices of Māori who have a genealogical history that connects them to the land and it embeds a vital link between Māori and Papatuanuku (Earth Mother).
Science knowledge underpins a large part of our day-to-day lives, and it’s questions encourage us to learn about the world we live in. Indigenous cultures have an advantage (to some degree of course) with their understanding of the land they inhabit, as their ancestors have spent centuries gathering information from medicine, food and historic events that directly relate to the land. Unfortunately, due to the dominance of traditional and classic research methods in science, much of this information has been disregarded and suppressed.
Amanda Black from Lincoln University, along with lead author Tara McAllister and others, co-wrote a paper (published in 2020) deciphering Mātauranga Māori in New Zealand ecology. Her article discusses the benefits of understanding and incorporating Māori knowledge and practices in research cases. Indigenous knowledge and connections to the land and marine environments offer deep temporal and spatial insights that can reshape our understanding of biodiversity. Such knowledge can also help us to create new pathways to halt or slow the rate of biodiversity loss.
The use of Mātauranga Māori within research allows us to re-shape our current understanding of the environment and provides improvements to address pressing environmental issues. ‘Two-eyed seeing’ is a metaphor that is used to assist people in conceptualising indigenous and western knowledge systems and to combine them in various ways that provide important insight for research.
Using this system can enhance ecosystem management throughout New Zealand. For example, assigning legal personhood status to a natural ecosystem (such as when the New Zealand Parliament assigned the Whanganui River legal personhood) aligns with how Māori view themselves – an integral part of the ecosystem. Legal personhood provides a framework where activities of exploitation need to be evaluated against the impacts on the ecological health of the system as a whole.
The Whanganui River, Kathrin & Stefan Marks Ecosystems as legal identities could provide a flexible and durable alternative to the current approach of regarding ecosystems and their natural services as ‘free’, which has led to their gradual decline. This is where the Kaitiakitanga system is important. It is the responsibility of everybody residing within New Zealand to understand how the speed and scale of urban and agricultural landscape change disrupts the relationship between people and their lands. The loss of links to nature has the possibility to damage the health and well-being of urban Māori (and all New Zealanders).
The recurrent theme of the paper is the importance of co-development and co-creation of research through effective partnerships with Māori. The paper recognises that there is a lack of interaction with Māori regarding research. It also illustrates the need for scientists to move beyond a research process that involves either no or one-off consultation with Māori to a process that acknowledges Māori as Treaty partners.
Being able to incorporate understandings from multiple knowledge systems is vital for a thorough understanding of the natural world, which is crucial in advancing the science of ecology within New Zealand. Understanding the indigenous knowledge systems/Mātauranga Māori of New Zealand and incorporating it into research priorities will improve the overall findings for researchers as they will have a more informed background of their area of study.
The author Janie Kersten is a postgraduate student in the Postgraduate Diploma in Applied Science taught at Lincoln University. This article was written as an assessment for ECOL 608 Research Methods in Ecology.
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1080 reasons for optimism
Photo overlooking Mount Summers (Jan 2022). Image by Chida Chapagain. It’s good to be optimistic. I have always been hopeful about the future. I lived the first 11 years of my life in a refugee camp. Times were tough, but I knew things could only get better. Even as a child, I knew there was more to this world than what I had experienced.
Fast forwards a couple of years, and my family and I are living in New Zealand, happier than ever. The first 11 years in Nepal, compared to my last 11 years here in New Zealand, have been extremely different. My life changed for the better.
Sometimes I wonder what would have happened if my family had moved to America or Australia instead of New Zealand. I often catch myself saying, “maybe my life would have been even better?” Optimism combined with curiosity can be a powerful motivator, leading us to explore the unknown. But we must be realistic with our expectations. Just because we are optimistic about the unknown doesn’t mean it must be true. There will always be challenges and limitations. Nothing is, or will ever be, perfect.
The same applies to alternative pest control methods being developed in New Zealand. The pest control toxin 1080 has its concerns, as do alternative methods that have been or are being developed. 1080 is a fully developed method that has been repeatedly shown to control introduced pest mammal populations on a large scale.
The common brushtail possum (Sept 2010). Photo by Daniela Parra from Flickr. While it may not be perfect, it is widely recognised among scientists and conservationists that 1080 is currently the best tool we have for pest control. The use of 1080 is essential in protecting our native flora and fauna. However, we should always be looking to make improvements, but until such progress is made, the use of 1080 must continue. Perhaps you’ve read other things about 1080 and don’t agree. Allow me to explain.
Bruce Warburton, Penny Fisher, Brian Hopkins, Graham Nugent, and Phil E. Cowan of Manakai Whenua Lanacare Reserach, along with James Ross of Lincoln University, outline the major areas of concern raised by 1080 and summarise the changes that have been made to the use of 1080 to address these concerns.
The main four concerns related to the use of 1080 have been:
- the potential environmental and human health risks,
- the limited control over where the bait lands when applied aerially,
- the lack of species selectivity, and
- the animal welfare impact on target and non-target species.
They explore the impacts of 1080 use for conservation and bovine tuberculosis (TB) control. They then summarise alternative toxicants and methods for mammal pest control being investigated in New Zealand. Then they address to what extent these alternative methods might be able to address the concerns raised by 1080 opponents. This article may alter your views on 1080.
1080 is the current best tool we have for our unique fauna!
Sodium fluoroacetate (1080) has been a recognised pesticide since the early 1940s. 1080 is most frequently mixed into cereal baits for possum and ship rat control. New Zealand is the world’s largest user of 1080. The extensive use of 1080 in New Zealand is made possible by our unique fauna, where we have 35 introduced mammal species and only two native terrestrial mammals (both bats).
Introduced mammals, such as rats, possums, and stoats, are widespread and have significant impacts on native biodiversity and/or agricultural production. They continue to damage and threaten native and endemic species at unacceptably high rates.
Māori believe ‘failure to act falls short of our responsibilities to our ancestors, and future generations’. Fortunately, 1080 is a very efficient method for pest control. Monitoring by the Department of Conservation (DOC) before and after aerial 1080 operations targeting possums, rodents, and stoats has repeatedly shown consistent benefits for nesting success in kiwi, kea, kaka, whio, pīwauwau, mohua, and tītitipounamu. O’Donnell and Hoare in 2012 found native bird populations to have doubled after more than 20 years of sustained predator control.
North Island Saddleback (Oct 2021). Photo by Geoff Mckay from Flickr. Are the ‘concerns’ about 1080 fact or evidence-based?
There are concerns and opposition to the use of 1080. Some are evidence-based. 1080 does kill non-target species. According to Dave Hansford, about 12% of radio-tagged kea died after aerial 1080 operations. In 1970, there was a ministerial review of the properties, effectiveness, and regulatory control of 1080. The review supported the use of 1080 but also recommended areas for improvement. Most of these recommendations were implemented, but opposition to its use remained.
In 2006, there was another formal assessment of 1080. Once again, the use of 1080 was permitted. 1080 opponents were still outraged. This triggered another investigation by the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment (PCE), who is tasked with providing independent advice to the government. The PCE concluded that “not only should the use of 1080 continue, but that we should use more of it.” Justified concerns about 1080 have been thoroughly reviewed many times, and these reviews have refined the ways in which 1080 is used safely to benefit the NZ environment. The remaining strong opposition to 1080 use by some New Zealanders has required that a lot of time and money being spent on developing, testing, and registering alternatives to 1080.
What are these alternative pest control methods?
There are many alternative methods for pest control. However, many of these are not feasible for our unique situation. For example, shooting is not a viable method for small mammals like mice and rats, and it is too expensive to apply on a large scale. Trapping, similarly is not cost-effective for large-scale operations, especially in the more remote, mountainous parts of New Zealand. Although these methods can complement 1080, they cannot achieve the levels required for effective large-scale conservation. New toxins, including zinc phosphide, sodium nitrate, coumatetrayl, and diphacinone, have also been registered for use. However, none have been developed for aerial use.
Genetic methods have the potential to drastically reduce the population of mammalian pests. There is a lot of attention on “gene drives”, which are engineered using the CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing technology. The gene drive DNA sequence, typically for reduced fertility, is then interwoven into the genome of an individual organism of the pest species, and every offspring of that individual inherits this modified DNA. One individual with this deleterious gene could potentially lead to complete eradication. This is the most promising alternative to 1080 in terms of cost and efficacy. There is, however, be significant scientific and public scrutiny to be done on this method.
In the meantime, our birds are continuing to be eaten by pest mammals.
My final thoughts
Having lived in both Nepal and New Zealand, I have been able to witness many beautiful birds. Nepal is home to the Himalayan Monal, which is my favourite. I vividly remember chasing this colourful bird around as a child. New Zealand is also home to many beautiful birds. We cherish these birds; they are part of us. However, today, many of them face the risk of extinction.
I am not an expert in pest control, but, I understand that without pest control, conservation programmes would fail. Reviews after reviews have shown that 1080 is the best current pest control method we have for introduced predatory mammals (possums, mice, rats, stoats, weasels) in New Zealand. Until we have better options, we need to continue using the best tools because our endangered endemic species cannot wait. We are lucky to have a pest control method that has proven to be so effective. It’s good to be optimistic.
The author Chida Chapagain is a postgraduate student in the Postgraduate Diploma in Applied Science taught at Lincoln University. This article was written as an assessment for ECOL 608 Research Methods in Ecology.
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Fishing for possum DNA
When I was a child, I was fixated on animals. In fact, 5-year-old me would go around telling all the primary school mums that I wanted to be a Palaeontologist. This was often met with some strange looks, quite possibly because they didn’t even know what a Palaeontologist was themselves. Since then, I have been less focused on digging up dead animals and more interested in protecting the ones that are still alive.
In New Zealand, tourism and agriculture are arguably the biggest money-maker industries. People flood from overseas to check out the clean green image being advertised in their home countries for themselves. The ‘Great Walks’ lead tourists through the rugged bush that New Zealand has to offer. Along the way they might even see some of our diverse flora and fauna, of which most can not be found elsewhere on Earth.
On the other hand, the dairy, sheep and beef industries in New Zealand, earn large amounts of overseas revenue. This all started when Samuel Marsden introduced shorthorn dairy cattle to New Zealand from New South Wales and the rest is history.
https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/wildlife/2017/04/killer-possums/ This brings me to the devious, but very cute looking, Brushtail Possum, Trichosurus vulpecula. In Australia, the Brushtail Possum is a protected species. In New Zealand they are a serious threat to our homegrown species. Possums compete with our native bird species for food and inhabit the same areas. These fluff balls are omnivores. In addition to eating the leaves off trees, they rob the nests of birds and eat the chicks and eggs.
Bovine tuberculosis is a disease that affects many farm animal species. Possums are the biggest carriers of tuberculosis and can infect herds of dairy cows, causing serious illness to the animals and a large vet bill for the farmer. Due to these factors, New Zealand tries incredibly hard to get rid of these furry mammals. One important thing that we need to know is where these possums are present and and in what numbers. For a nocturnal and relatively cryptid species, this is a lot harder to do than simply call a roll!
The use of trace DNA to monitor animals, such as possums, is a relatively new concept. However, a trial was held in Canterbury where researchers collected DNA from saliva left on WaxTags and Chewcards to determine the number of possums in an area and check whether these individuals were Tuberculosis carriers. From the initial field study, it was found that multiple possums would bite the WaxTag and Chew cards which made it difficult for the lab team to isolate certain animals. A new device to collect data was needed.
A mechanical collection device was created which would remove the bait after one animal had bitten into it, which protected the saliva and therefore the individual DNA could be distinguished. The device was a bit like a fishing line, catching its prey and then reeling in the DNA! Researchers found that the mechanical device allowed the DNA to be collected and more easily sequenced. They also found that the genetic material was more easily recovered from covered WaxTags than on the uncovered WaxTags.
Mechanical device created to protect DNA sample on the WaxTag.
Image from: A New Non-Invasive Method for Collecting DNA From Small Mammals in the Field, and Its Application in Simultaneous Vector and Disease Monitoring in Brushtail PossumsCameras used in the field trials picked up that the possums interacted with the new WaxTags, and 87% of the devices were triggered after the first interaction. This is a positive point because in order for a monitoring device to be useful, the target has to interact with it.
This new way of collecting trace DNA samples was a success. DNA from Brushtail Possums was able to be amplified for genetic identification and was able to detect if diseases were present. The combination of the device being interesting enough for the targets to interact with, and the subsequent DNA extracted being protected until collection, means that it is ever more likely that technology like this can be used for other pest species to determine their disease risk.
The current study is the first to collect trace amounts of possum DNA and keep it protected from the elements until genetic analysis has taken place. This is a pretty big step for DNA collection methods. However, transmission of infectious diseases by vectors, such as possums, is density dependant. More collection devices need to be installed in these areas being studied to create ‘encounter’ history for individuals to determine population density and to calculate the likeliness for for transmission of these vector carried diseases.
This research suggests that there are new ways for non-invasive monitoring pest populations. The road to New Zealand being predator free by 2050 is a long one, but is shortened by the impressive new technologies being developed in the pest management space. This technology is key for determining the populations of pests in their area and how likely their livestock are to contracting devastating diseases such as Bovine Tuberculosis.
Dealing with pests may not be the most fun thing to do week to week, however, determining where populations are and where the risks lie can help experienced personal to more effectively manage pest populations and get New Zealand back to where we should be, mammal predator free.
This article was prepared by postgraduate student Rebecca Anderson as part of the ECOL608 Research Methods in Ecology course.
Emami-Khoyi A, Agnew TW, Adair MG, Murphy EC, Benmazouz I, Monsanto DM, Parbhu SP, Main DC, Le Roux R, Golla TR, Schnelle C, Alizadeh H, Csányi S, Heltai M, Jansen van Vuuren B, Paterson AM, Teske PR and Ross JG (2021) A New Non-invasive Method for Collecting DNA From Small Mammals in the Field, and Its Application in Simultaneous Vector and Disease Monitoring in Brushtail Possums. Front. Environ. Sci. 9:701033. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2021.701033
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Māori environmental values and assessments of ecological effects
A resprouted pūriri tree. Photo/Paula Godfrey, December 2021 I never imagined as a small child that growing up I’d be an ecologist, deciding the fate of trees we drove past, and maybe one day, the very trees I climbed. One of my favorite trees is a silver ponga (Cyathea dealbata) near our whare (house). The photograph below shows me as an 8-year-old sitting in my ponga tree. For several months a year, I couldn’t climb the ponga while it grew its new fronds. We were strictly not allowed to cause any tree to die without good reason and a blessing from Papatūānuku. As a child, my whānau and I spent a lot of time up trees and exploring the the lush bush of north Auckland.
Sitting in my favourite ponga, 2002. As an ecologist working in botany, I get asked all the time what my favourite tree/plant is, and the answer changes depending on what’s looking particularly beautiful that week. Are the kōwhai (Sophora spp.) flowering? Have the kauri (Agathis australis) got new growth? Have the māhoe (Melicytus ramiflorus) produced another bumper crop? These are the factors that influence my answer.
Take for example the pūriri tree (Vitex lucens). Pūriri has significant ecological value in its own right and is often my favorite tree. It produces flowers almost all-year round for tuī to feed on. It allows kereru to eat its berries and it even hosts NZ’s largest moth species (the massive green pūriri moths, Aenetus virescens).
These trees are impossible to age, as the old specimens have hollow trunks and twisted hard wood, making traditional ageing techniques very difficult. It’s thought that pūriri are the longest living plant in NZ. As part of pūriri tree’s life cycle, they typically start looking sick, fall over and ‘resprout’ by producing roots along their trunk that sink into the ground. By doing so they form large areas of canopy from a single trunk, as now their trunk is prostrate. The photo above shows a pūriri tree which has been cut down and resprouted. The hollow trunk is visible on the right of the photo.
Pūriri holds ecological values but also holds significant tangata whenua values. For me, as a Ngāpuhi (Northland iwi within the pūriri distribution area), I have a strong emotional connection to pūriri that is intertwined with its ecological value. How can that be?
Well, pūriri is used as an infusion to wash the bodies of our tūpāpaku (deceased) and adorned with pūriri leaves as they decomposed. The bones are later gathered up and scraped clean, then placed within the pūriri tree in a kete. These days, we simply adorn our tūpāpaku with pūriri and lay them to rest within Papatūānuku. This is what my brothers, myself and Māmā did with our Pāpā. Learn more about this practice here.
Cutting down a pūriri tree is like digging up a church cemetery without exhuming the bodies first, and in many cases, even today, this would happen without notification to the tīpuna (ancestors) of those who lay there.
Laying Pāpa to rest. I am middle left. Note the pūriri leaves surrounding the body. Photo/ John Malcom, 2006. The issue of Māori values and the environment was brought to media attention (again) last year with the new marina works in Pūtiki bay, Waiheke Island, and the 2020 protests over Ihumātao, the historic stonefields in Auckland en-route to become a major housing development. Although Ihumātao was not a specific environmental issue, environment and ecology is undeniably intertwined.
As an ecologist working for a private consultancy, or even a government organisation, such as Waka Kotahi, or a local council, you’ll come across new developments (or redevelopments) seeking resource consent. To gain resource consent you need to demonstrate as an ecologist that the environment is not going to be degraded, and that post-development you’ll end up with a ‘net ecological gain’. This is called an Assessment of Environmental Effects (AEE).
There is a recommendation to include tangata whenua rights in AEE’s (as per the Section 8 of the Resource Management Act 1991). In practice they are kept as separate documents, with no cross-over between cultural effects and environmental effects. How can AEE’s integrate tangata whenua rights as part of an ecological assessment and fulfil the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi?
A sign at the Ihumātao protests. Photo/ RNZ, Dan Cook, March 2019. In 1998 Stuart Waddel thought about the same question. He undertook a study to recognise the indigenous rights in AEE’s and how to integrate them. He found that applicants for resource consents have no statutory requirements to contact tangata whenua when proposing a new development, it is only ‘good practice’ to do so. The AEE’s are used to inform the consenting authority (local councils) on the potential effects that the activity will have on the environment. Therefore, the contact with tangata whenua needs to be prior to the AEE being produced, not after. One good example of intergrating tangata whenua into an AEE is on the MacKays to Peka Peka Project by NZTA.
Recognition of kaitiakitanga (guardianship) in the AEE’s is when it comes to identification of potential environmental impacts as important for achieving better environmental outcomes for all. The environmental values are interconnected with the mauri (essence/life force) of the area, and links spiritual, genealogical, cultural and physical values. Recognition of kaitiakitanga in AEE’s (because it’s respected within tikanga Māori (cultural practice)), cannot be defined by local councils or government as that would mean they are speaking for kaitiakitanga, which is reserved for tangata whenua to speak to.
Waddel noted that Pākehā and Māori have long held differing views on the values of our environment, which has lead to contentious issues throughout the colonising history of NZ. Māori value the earth as a precious gift and follow strict rules on kaitiakitanga through kaitiaki (looking after) our environment in order to receive the life giving resources it provides. Māori also value different food sources to Pākehā, such as kahikatea berries. Pākehā tend to view the whenua (land) as a resource ripe for exploitation.
Ensuring that the proposed development area will be able to be sustainably used for future generations and for mahinga kai (food gathering) is a meaningful environmental outcome that demonstrates that the environment will retain its mauri.
Shaking the kahikatea berries down for eating, 2005. It is more important than ever to carry out pre-project consultation with tangata whenua groups (iwi, hapu, rūnanga) and listen to what they have to say. The real environmental outcomes are achieved when the korero (conversation) is received by the development team with a learning mindset, and tangata whenua recommendations are implemented early in the project. If you’re a bit stuck on where to start, the Bay of Plenty Regional Council has a good resource for iwi engagement on their website.
Iwi engagement in AEE’s are beneficial for all. If AEE’s are done right, those hundred year-old pūriri trees would be here to stay and not replaced with a car park. If cultural considerations were implemented decades ago, we would have a much more natural environment, greater climate change resilience and many more trees to climb in our neighbourhoods.
If you want to gain a deeper understanding of kaitiakitanga, I highly recommend reading the book Braiding Sweetgrass by Robin Wall Kimmerer who shares a Native American perspective which is similar to te ao Māori worldviews.
Citation: Waddel, S. R. (1998). Restoring Kaitiakitanga: evaluating the recognition of indigenous rights in assessment of environmental effects (Doctoral dissertation, Lincoln University).
The author Paula Godfrey is a postgraduate student in the Postgraduate Diploma in Applied Science taught at Lincoln University. This article was written as an assessment for ECOL 608 Research Methods in Ecology.
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Nosy predators check out the competition
Growing up in New Zealand, I had a great passion for animals. Viewing everything through a child’s eyes, I believed that all wildlife should be free to thrive anywhere they wanted. Today I see the realities of the world were all animals are cherished, but some are out of place and others are vulnerable. I am not alone in realising the endangerment and damage that pest species can cause to our native species. This awareness has me seeking to understand the appropriateness of eliminating certain species from particular locations in order to protect others.
The flora and fauna within New Zealand are some of the most remarkable in the world. A large majority of the animals and plants (and fungi) are endemic, or unique, to New Zealand. Over the years, many species have been introduced to New Zealand, such as ferrets, stoats, hedgehogs and ship rats, that have put these unique animals and plants at risk. It has become vital that monitoring and control of these predators is implemented to allow our native species a greater chance of survival.
Research to improve strategies and techniques to monitor and remove these predator species has been underway for many years now. One method used to monitor these predators is through deploying food-based lures that attract the target animals to traps or cameras. This allows for observations to be made in order to determine the density of these species in the surrounding area, as well as to increase the chances of trapping and removing these animals.
One way to attract these predators is to use odours from more dominant predators to attract the target species to the traps or cameras. This technique is based on the observation that mammals, like stoats and rats, use scent as their primary sense to forage for food and detect dominant species (higher ranking species than themselves). Dominant species directly influence the behaviour of mesopredators (mid ranking predators) by either attracting them or repelling them away from the odour. A dominant predator’s odour may provoke the subordinate (lower ranking predator) into preforming eavesdropping behaviour. This behaviour is used by species to inspect the location where the dominant predator has roamed. If the location is good enough for the big, tough predator then maybe it is a good place for the subordinate as well.
Researchers from Lincoln University, University of Auckland and Landcare Research chose to test ferret odour verses fresh rabbit meat (a traditional lure) for stoats, hedgehogs and ship rats. This study took place at Toronui station, a 1500 hectare sheep and beef farm located in Northern Hawkes Bay. It lasted for 64 days trial.
From left to right; Stoat (Mustela erminea), Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus), Ship Rat (Rattus rattus) and Ferret (Mustela putorius furo), all mammalian predators introduced to New Zealand. Charlie Marshall, (CC BY 2.0), https://www.flickr.com/photos/100915417@N07/49407663736; Jesus Duarte, (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0), https://www.flickr.com/photos/26795194@N00/8897432606; Amanda and William Explore, (CC BY-NC 4.0), https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/120567285; Max Moreau, (CC BY 2.0), https://www.flickr.com/photos/9426349@N07/6085681724. The results from this trial confirmed that the ferret odour was the best for attraction, at least for stoats and hedgehogs, while rats avoided the ferret odour. Other studies have also found that rats avoid fresh odours. Stoats showed the strongest attraction to the ferret odour, with double the number of stoats being observed at the monitoring stations compared to fresh rabbit meat. These results can lead to exciting new possibilities to improve the monitoring and management of these species, especially in places where they are predicted to be rare.
One surprising result that was found was that the population of stoats at Toronui station before the study began was estimated to be rare. After the study was completed, the stoat population was predicted to be widespread. This makes you wonder just how underestimated the population of stoats in New Zealand really is.
Studies like this are important as New Zealand. With very limited native mammals, the native species, such as birds and insects, within New Zealand have had no need to adapt to mammalian predators. As a consequence when predator mammals were introduced into New Zealand they caused devastating damage to the endemic species.
Ferret odour lures were found to last longer than the fresh rabbit meat lures. This means that the ferret odour lures can be left out in the field for a longer period of time and still work just as well. Rabbit meat lures become ineffective faster leading to underestimates of pest populations.
The finding of the effectiveness of ferret odour as an attractant, especially in stoats, introduces a new tool and opportunity for pest management and conservation. It opens up many paths for future research to develop and learn more about this type of monitoring and the positive effects that it could have on our native species. More recent work has reported similar outcomes.
Mammalian predators are a major threat to the unique biodiversity that we have in New Zealand. New discoveries, such as the use of dominant predator odour in predator removal, gives me hope that there is a future for our taonga, native species.
The author Stacey Lewthwaite is a postgraduate student in the Master of International Nature Conservation taught at Lincoln University. This article was written as an assessment for ECOL 608 Research Methods in Ecology.
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Can mushrooms save our planet from burping cows?
Ever since I was a small child, I have listened to people talk about global warming and climate change. Back then I had no idea what it meant. Was our planet going to catch on fire? Were we all going to die? And why did no one seem to agree if it was fact or fiction?
I come from a family of old school sheep and beef farmers that believed it to be a myth, or at least an over-exaggerations by scientists. As I grew up, I became increasingly more inquisitive, always asking how could something as large as our planet be warming? And what could be the cause?
Burning earth globe west hemisphere. By Boris Ryaposov. © Adobe Stock #45170848, used with license Many of my questions were left unanswered until I started high school and discovered science. Straight away I fell in love with its explanations for how everything functioned. Everything from the stars in the sky right down to the soil beneath our feet (and even further down to the centre of the earth).
Global warming quickly became a topic that piqued my interest. The more I learnt, the more obvious it became that it was a very real, very serious problem. What exactly is global warming? Thankfully, the planet isn’t going to literally catch on fire like I once thought (although fires will be more likely). The temperature of our planet is slowly increasing each year due to ‘dirty industries‘ pumping pollutants, called greenhouse gases (GHGs), into the atmosphere.
These gasses end up trapping heat from the sun, rather than it being reflected back into space. This heat warms the atmosphere, resulting in extreme weather events becoming more frequent . This means more forest fires, droughts, floods and heatwaves, which combined have disastrous effects on the environment and negatively affect many peoples’ lives.
Methane emissions! 牛のゲップ、メタンガス排出のイラスト. By MAYUK0. © Adobe Stock #488498751, used with license. Studying environmental science at university has taught me all of the main contributors to this problem. A major issue for New Zealand (NZ) is the gas methane. Methane makes up the majority of NZ’s agricultural GHG emissions, and it often comes from farm animals, such as sheep and cows. These animals produce methane during their digestive process and release it into the air by burping! Scientists have estimated that 40% of the total warming effect generated by human activities is due to methane.
Under the Climate Change Act, NZ must reduce methane emissions from agriculture by 10% by 2030, and within the range of 24-47% reduction by 2050 (NIWA). Hence finding methods to reduce the amount of methane produced by animals is particularly important.
The paper by K.T. Rangubhet and colleagues in the Journal Animal Feed Science and Technology found that by adding spent mushroom substrate (SMS) to cow food, that their methane emissions were significantly reduced.
Mushroom substrate refers to the waste generated from mushroom production and is usually found in abundance after a mushroom harvesting period. The chemical composition of the mushrooms affects an animal’s fermentation and ecology. A useful byproduct of this is reduced amounts of methane burped into the atmosphere. Applying SMS to the feed of dairy cows could reduce the amount of emissions that animals contribute to greenhouse gases.
Fungi – an image by Adrian Paterson Adding spent mushroom substrate uses diet and nutrition as a method to reduce GHG emissions throughout NZ. It is an approach that could allow our country to achieve the reduction goal set by the climate change act. Since this is in the next 8 years, SMS may be able to help NZ achieve these goals, especially as it is cost-effective and easy to apply. Other approaches are herd management, where animal breeds are selected that can utilise food more efficiently, and emit less methane. The strategy also includes reducing the number of unproductive animals in a herd to improve profitability.
If these methods continue to show promise by substantially reducing methane emissions from dairy cows, this could be applied to farms throughout NZ. SMS could make a real difference to this country’s effort to prevent climate change due to GHG. This could then be part of a global solution to help to mitigate climate change and slow down our planet’s increasing temperature.
The author Polly Cavanagh is a postgraduate student in the Master of Science -Environmental Science taught at Lincoln University. This article was written as an assessment for ECOL 608 Research Methods in Ecology.
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The spitfire: a sure-fire way to eradicate stoats?
Stoat! Look out, the RAF (Really Awesome Field-research) is coming! Photo CC BY-NC 2.0 Stuart Smith, Flickr
Stoats, weasels and ferrets: the terrifying trio. If New Zealand’s native birds could speak, I’m sure that’s how they would refer to them as they swap stories of escape and near misses. Widespread, wily and lethal, the stoat is considered the greatest threat to the survival of many endangered and threatened native birds on the mainland, such as the takahe, orange-fronted parakeet, and Leonardo DiCaprio’s favourite, the kakī (black stilt).
Here are the cold, hard facts. Humans introduced stoats from Europe to control rabbits in the 1880’s, against the advice of ecologists at the time. They have since run rampant over our native bird species, throwing many populations into a drastic decline. Like clever little kleptomaniacs, they sleep on beds of feathers stolen from our most treasured and rare birds.
We must eradicate stoats from areas of New Zealand if we are to have an extant bird as our national icon. The prevailing question is, how?
Photo CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 Shellie Evans, Flickr Never fear, the Spitfire is here! Unless you are a stoat then, yes, be afraid. The Spitfire is a re-setting toxin delivery device which was trialled in the Blue Mountains of Otago in 2013. 65 Spitfire devices were set up for approximately six weeks. Each device was capable of delivering 100 lethal doses of the stoat killing toxin PAPP (para-aminopropiophenone).
The stoat population was monitored in the area during this time using trail cameras and tracking tunnels in order to measure the Spitfire’s effects.
The project was carried out by Elaine Murphy, Tim Sjoberg and James Ross from Lincoln University, along with researchers from Wildlands, the Department of Conservation and Connovation. They found that the Spitfire knocked down 62% of the stoat population in the trial area.
The Spitfire is a very picky individual, only delivering the lethal dose of poison to a suitor of the right body size and shape. The device is able to do this due to its dual sensors. Cameras trained on the Spitfire devices during the trial in Otago recorded no instances of non-target species, such as rifleman, receiving any of the poison. PAPP has been registered for use in stoat control since 2011, but is mostly available for use in fresh meat lures, which are labour intensive to produce and expire quickly.
The 2013 trial was a success for the Spitfire and PAPP, but it was not without it’s issues. It was a trial after all! Many of the devices malfunctioned before the end of the six week trial due to design faults in weather proofing and circuitry. The conclusion was that the Spitfire showed promise, but lacked in stamina and sturdiness.
Kereru in Kawakawa, Photo CC BY 2.0 Geoff McKay, Flickr All was not lost! In 2016 the New Zealand Government announced its goal to become predator (rats, mustelids and possums) free by 2050, which led to a funding initiative called ‘Products to Purchase‘ from PF2050 Ltd. Five products were selected, based on their expected contribution to the cause, to receive funding to fast track their development to a marketable level.
In 2019, the first five successful applicants were named, and who should be among them but our voracious Spitfire. A Tauranga based start-up called Envico Technologies Ltd (ECT) went back to the drawing board with the device. They re-engineered and re-invigorated the design and produced a prototype they could now commercialise, all with the help of the funding from PF2050 Ltd.
The Spitfire was back in the game, with the new design finalised in 2020. The latest model promises a longer lifespan of one year, during which no maintenance or refills are required. It’s widely known that the main cost in stoat control is in the field hours with bait station and trap operations, so this hands-free option is looking like an economical as well as an effective choice.
Also on the toolbelt of the new Spitfire model is a bluetooth data logger, which records the date and time of trigger events. ECT envisions this feature being highly beneficial for monitoring pest populations and assisting with re-invasion events in eradicated areas. Because of it’s long field life, the Spitfire becomes an attractive option for use in more remote areas where previously the only viable option has been aerial 1080 drops. If you have a ‘Ban 1080’ bumper sticker, this product may be for you.
Brushtail possum and her joey at Tārerekautuku Yarrs Lagoon, Photo Katherine Turton. Just when you think it can’t get any better, a distinct advantage of the Spitfire is that there are few issues with alternative food sources or bait shyness. Stoats don’t have to bite, pull, stand on a treadle, or count backwards from 100 to receive a lethal dose. They are simply drawn in by an automatic lure dispenser that keeps a delicious mayonnaise paste coming all year-round.
The Spitfire is an intellectual. It has smart capacitive sensors that can detect and measure anything that is conductive. It can tell the difference between the long sausage body of a stoat and a little compact rifleman, preventing our inquisitive native species from receiving the toxin. When the Spitfire senses a stoat it launches a lethal splurge of toxin onto the abdomen, after which the animals are instinctually driven to groom off the mess.
ECT joined forces with the Department of Conservation and Boffa Miskell to conduct field trials from 2020-2022. Alongside the stoat design, a model specifically for our Australian foes, the brushtail possum, was also trialled using a Diphacinone and Cholicalciferol toxin instead of PAPP.
Field trials are about to conclude for the Spitfire and ECT are expecting to roll out the finished product at $200 a piece. There is also talk that a rat specific Spitfire is now in the works! This innovative technology is paving the way for more effective pest control not just here in New Zealand but worldwide. Conservation groups get your wallets ready and watch this space!
For more information, see the article on the Sptifire trial in Otago and follow ECT to keep up with their latest technological solutions for conservation!
This article was prepared by postgraduate student Katherine Turton as part of the ECOL 608 Research Methods in Ecology course in her Master of Pest Management degree.
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Blow-torching plants for hot evolutionary insights into flammability
Who would have thought that it is possible to get funding to torch dried plants on a grill, for science! The results are now in a scientific journal, contributing insights regarding the evolution of flammability in plants.
My 8-year-old self would have been delighted, that is for sure. Then I was already very interested in biology. I also had some ‘slightly’ pyromaniac tendencies. I conducted my own ‘research’ on the flammability of various household materials, such as cardboard, candles and scrap wood from my dad’s workshop in the basement.
My parents were probably a little too tolerant in this regard. They provided me with a relatively safe ‘lab’ environment that basically consisted of an inflammable tray, made of aluminium. This I could deploy in the garden to conduct my rather opportunistic experiments. My parents watched cautiously with a bucket of water in reach.
Luckily, everything turned out well, I did not burn down our house or anything of significance and instead grew up to focus on Biodiversity, Ecology and now Nature Conservation during my time at school and university. The only relic of my childhood experiments is a propensity to seek out excuses to (safely) ignite a campfire while hiking, to hone my caveman skills and to ‘impress’ my friends.
Dracophyllum rosmarinifolium, the inaka or common grass tree, Photo CC0 1.0 by Leon Billows, iNaturalist NZ This brings us to the recent publication of Xinglei Cui et al., that was published earlier this year in Forest Ecosystems. Xinglei is a former PhD student on plant flammability at Lincoln University – now working at Sichuan Agricultural University, in Chengdu, China. He worked in collaboration with other researchers from China and New Zealand, among them LU’s Adrian Paterson, Kate Marshall and Tim Curran.
Xinglei wanted to solve the question of whether the presence of different environmental conditions (for example altitude above sea level) could explain differences in the flammability among individuals of the common grass tree or inaka (Dracophyllum rosmarinifolium). This plant was chosen since it occurs throughout the South Island and can live in very different habitats, from rocky slopes to plateaus and valley floors. Inaka also shows diverse shapes and sizes – a lot of variability among the same species.
Previous research, mostly focused on relating flammability of plants to fire frequency in their natural range, showed that species like gorse become more flammable when there are more fires. This has inspired macabre sounding hypotheses such as ‘kill thy neighbour’ or ‘born to burn’, and other good death metal sounding titles! While this might sound contradictory, some plants take an evolutionary advantage from being highly flammable, if being flammable kills your neighbours and provides open space for your pyromaniac offspring.
Coming back to our grass tree, we are not sure how flammability evolves without the regular presence of wildfires, like in New Zealand. This question becomes especially relevant considering rising temperatures and weather that becomes more and more unstable through climate change. Areas of the world are now burning where fire used to be rare. Answering this question could help to understand where and why the risk of wildfires could be higher in regions of New Zealand that experience increasing periods of ‘wildfire weather’ conditions.
Grill similar to the one used for the project, Photo CC BY 2.0 by Liz West, Flickr 
Photo CC BY-NC 2.0 by Duncan C, Flickr To test this, the researchers had the chance to use a device that looks suspiciously like it could be used for a nice barbecue after finishing the scientific experiments. Not only does it feature a regular gas burner, but also an awe-inspiring blow torch, based on the design of an older publication and adapted to New Zealand safety standards by Sarah Wyse in 2016. Shoot samples from eight different South Island locations, each with different environmental and habitat conditions, were tested regarding their burning qualities. After 24 hours of air drying, they were preheated for 2 minutes before trying to set them on fire. Then, duration, temperatures and the amount of the plant that got burned in the process were measured – what a task!
Flammability among plants from the eight locations varied a lot, although every single sample caught fire. The sample from Mt Arthur in the north of the South Island was most flammable, while individuals from the Homer Tunnel in Fiordland were least flammable. However, the influence of the habitat conditions from those eight sampling conditions turned out not to be related to the flammability of the grass tree.
What do these results tell us about the evolution of flammability in the common grass tree, if environmental conditions don’t seem to have an effect on it? Xinglei and his colleagues concluded that flammability of this plant is more likely to be a by-product, an indirect result in the evolution of other characteristics of this plant, since it grows – in areas without a natural wild fire regime.
In any case, the authors highlight that it is important to continue this type of research to understand and manage the risk of wildfires in light of climate change. This may help us to understand where wildfires are likely to occur in New Zealand and to react and plan accordingly. Many further questions have to be solved. For example, is the current flammability of the grass tree passed directly on to the next generation and why are flammability traits so different among individuals of the same species.
There are many more projects to come and more importantly, many chances to safely live out your pyromaniac tendencies! I’m keen, and I have my own tray!
This article was prepared by postgraduate student Jan-Niklas Trei as part of the ECOL 608 Research Methods in Ecology course in her Master of International Nature Conservation degree.
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Flooding causes greenhouse gas emissions to spike! …Liming to the rescue?
Climate change, greenhouse gas emissions, nitrate leaching… a climate crisis! With the frequency of how these phrases are used today, it does not require a vast imagination to connect the dots and find some sort of a global catastrophe lurking around the corner. And who could be blamed when just last year, the World Health Organisation labelled climate change as the “single biggest threat facing humanity”. They frequently used terms like ‘crisis’, ‘catastrophe’, and perhaps most daunting, ‘inevitable’ within their annual review.
While this is all clearly alarming, a big question that we must ask is how this will affect New Zealand?
Climate change has been felt throughout the world, and New Zealand is no exception. The current New Zealand government declared a climate emergency in 2020. While some may consider its declaration to be reactionary, it is nonetheless a powerful statement.
In the face of climate change, the single biggest challenge is how to sustainably and effectively reduce global greenhouse gas emissions. Everyone seems to be trying to find an answer while simultaneously passing the blame onto someone else. Delving into the rabbit hole of climate change mismanagement, I found a tangled mess of political bureaucracy, tied up with industrial and economic intrigue. But most importantly, I discerned that the question on how to best solve climate change is much too hard to answer within this short blog post.
Flooded pastureland Since a significant proportion of greenhouse gas emissions is owed to increases in agriculture, reducing agricultural emissions can help alleviate this issue. Let’s look at one tiny corner of agriculture. As climate change triggers higher rainfall and more flooding events, an increase in nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions will occur, due to the loss of oxygen in the soil.
N2O has been estimated as having 300 times more global warming potential than carbon dioxide (CO2), and yet has been largely ignored as a greenhouse gas. Agricultural soils, being highly fertile with a high nitrogen content, contribute massively to the amount of N2O produced annually throughout the world. Understanding how to control and limit N2O production from agricultural land could result in major reductions of greenhouse gas emissions globally each year.
With this in mind, researchers from the University of Copenhagen in Denmark and Lincoln University in New Zealand examined the relationship between flooding events and N2O emissions on fertile farmland. The study occurred in Canterbury New Zealand and found periodic flooding resulted in greater N2O emissions while the amount of gas released could be reduced if liming had occurred recently. Liming is the process where crushed limestone is applied as a soil additive to directly increase soil pH and occurs frequently throughout the world. The significance of this result is not be understated and results in at least two implications for the future of agriculture and climate change as a whole.
Drainage Ditches Firstly, since flooding can cause N2O production to spike, areas of high flooding risk in low lying areas should have reduced fertiliser inputs during wetter months to prevent N2O from being produced. Secondly, regular liming of agricultural land, particularly before high rainfall events, could help maintain pH levels limiting N2O production.
This research shows the importance of having good drainage in agricultural areas, but also represents concern for the future as high rainfall events become more common, particularly in wetter areas of New Zealand.
Are we going to experience greater N2O emissions in the future as climate change results in more extreme weather events? Will liming be sufficient at reducing N2O emissions from farmland? Research seems to always create more questions than answers, but as I said earlier, this is much too hard to answer in a blog post.
What can be concluded is that since N2O emissions appears to reduce by regularly applying agricultural lime to farmland, this could allow New Zealand to lower its global climate change impact. But perhaps most importantly, it shows us that if we are going to solve the issue of climate change, proactive research followed by successful implementation is often the best answer.
For additional details regarding this article, please refer to the research paper below:
Flooding-induced N2O emission bursts controlled by pH and nitrate in agricultural soils.Hansen, M., Clough, T. J., & Elberling, B. (2014). Flooding-induced N2O emission bursts controlled by pH and nitrate in agricultural soils. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 69, 17-24.
The author Cameron Hilliard is a postgraduate student in the Master of Science taught at Lincoln University. This article was written as an assessment for ECOL 608 Research Methods in Ecology.
